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The Universe is composed of celestial bodies and vast spaces where the presence of matter is scarce. These various celestial bodies are arranged in structures that expand in successively increasing scale. In the Universe, we can observe stars of different ages: some are still in the process of formation, others are in stable stages of life and some are in the final stages of their existence. The Sun is currently in a stable life phase.

Stars that have planets and other non-stellar bodies orbiting around them form structures known as planetary systems. Our planet Earth is part of a planetary system called the solar system. For many centuries, the Solar System was believed to be the only planetary system in the Universe. However, we are currently aware that this assumption is not valid. Today, thousands of planetary systems, composed of planets that surround distant stars, have been identified.

The bodies we call stars have their own light, radiating the light they generate and thus illuminating the firmament. Consequently, they are categorized as luminous celestial bodies. Such stars can also host planets and other objects devoid of their own light that orbit around them.

A star does not appear in isolation, but together with many others, which, over time, tend to disperse. In this way, stars can manifest individually or in clusters. Clusters of stars with a common origin, which revolve around a central point, are called stellar clusters, and can be classified into two categories: globular (or compact) clusters, which gather older stars and range from a few thousand to a million of stars; and open clusters, which are smaller and encompass a few tens to thousands of stars. The stars in these open clusters are younger, more sparsely distributed and, over time, tend to move away from each other.

Stars, planetary systems and star clusters are integrated into vast structures known as galaxies. Galaxies are conglomerates composed of countless millions of stars, plus non-stellar celestial objects, gases and dust particles, all moving collectively around their central regions. Within galaxies, gas and dust gather to form nebulae, which can either arise from the remnants of the stellar life cycle or be associated with the birth of new stars.

Different sizes and shapes are found among galaxies: among them, spiral, elliptical and irregular. Spiral galaxies stand out for their luminous central core, from which several arms emanate. Irregular galaxies, on the other hand, do not adopt defined shapes and are composed of young stars rich in gases and dust particles. As for quasars, they represent intensely luminous cores of galaxies located at great distances. These structures were identified in the 1960s. Initially observed with optical telescopes, these objects resembled stars, giving rise to the name "quasars".
On the other hand, clusters of galaxies, in turn, unite to constitute sets of even larger proportions, known as superclusters or superclusters of galaxies.

One of the superclusters of galaxies existing in the Universe is known as the Virgo Supercluster. Within this supercluster is inserted a galactic set called the Local Group, which includes our own galaxy, the Milky Way. This spiral galaxy, composed of about one hundred billion stars, gases and dust particles, has in one of its arms the Orion Arm, where our Sun and the entire Solar System are located. The Earth, being the third planet from the Sun in the Solar System, is part of this context.

Geography is a discipline whose focus is to understand and locate the phenomena that surround human beings. It seeks to identify and evaluate the implications of human actions on the environment, while seeking solutions to promote a more harmonious coexistence between humanity and Nature.
The geographer has several sources of information, such as maps, statistics, texts, photographs, films, documentaries, interviews and questionnaires. In addition, you can choose to conduct investigations in loco, as is common in field trips. Geographical investigation begins with direct observation, involving on-site analysis, and indirect observation, when the geographer examines documental sources of information.

In 1972, UNESCO adopted the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage with the purpose of identifying, preserving and conserving landscapes of great value to humanity. These landscapes, whether natural or humanized, contribute to human knowledge and history or face extinction risks. Since then, global efforts have been directed towards protecting and conserving World Heritage Sites such as the Memphis Necropolis and the pyramids from Giza to Dahshur in Egypt, the Giant Panda Sanctuary in China and Machu Picchu in Peru, the Subantarctic Islands New Zealanders in New Zealand, among others.

Human beings have always sought to understand the space around them, representing it on globes and maps, fundamental tools for Geography. These representations help in locating, identifying relationships between phenomena and detecting patterns. Different types of maps allow portraying various natural and human phenomena with different levels of detail and perspective. Among them are the plan, the itinerary map, the topographic map and the planisphere.

Cartography deals with the challenge of representing the shape of the Earth on a plane through cartographic projections. However, all projections result in distortions in the contours, distances and proportions of continents and oceans. There is the Cylindrical Projection - which uses a cylinder as a projection surface, and is ideal for building planispheres; Conical projection - uses a cone as a projection surface, and is ideal for mapping mid-latitude regions; and Azimuthal projection - uses a plane as a projection surface, and is ideal for building maps of polar regions.

Capturing the earth's surface and its elements on a map or globe requires a reduction of reality. This reduction is expressed by the scale. Both numeric scales (represented by fractions) and graphic scales convey the same information to the user. However, the graphical scale has an advantage in representing the distance on the map by means of a line segment, allowing enlargements or reductions of the map to preserve the proportion between the distances on the map and in reality.

Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world, is constantly growing! Located in the Himalayan mountain range between Nepal and Tibet, its elevation gradually increases due to the movement of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates, which are in constant collision. This impact causes the Himalayas to rise a few millimeters every year.
This process occurs due to orogenesis, a geological phenomenon responsible for the formation of mountain ranges over millions of years. In the case of Everest, the pressure of the Indian plate against the Eurasian plate generates a slow but constant growth of the mountain.
However, this increase is not always linear. Earthquakes in the region can occasionally reduce Everest's height. An example of this occurred in 2015, when a strong tremor in Nepal caused the mountain to lose a few centimeters of its altitude, according to scientific measurements.
In addition to being a natural wonder, Everest continues to challenge climbers from all over the world, who face extreme weather conditions to reach the highest point. Its continued growth highlights the dynamics of Earth and how the forces of nature constantly and impressively shape our planet.

The coldest place in the world ever recorded is in Antarctica, more specifically at Vostok Station, a Russian research base located in one of the most isolated and inhospitable spots on the planet. On July 21, 1983, the station's thermometers recorded a staggering -89.2°C, a temperature so extreme that it can freeze human skin in a matter of seconds.
This intense cold is due to several factors, such as the region's high altitude, which exceeds 3,400 meters above sea level, and the fact that Antarctica is located at the South Pole, where the Earth's tilt reduces the incidence of sunlight during the winter. In addition, the dry air and the lack of heat absorbed by the ice-covered ground contribute to the extreme drop in temperatures.
More recently, satellite measurements have indicated even lower temperatures in some parts of Antarctica, reaching around -98°C. However, these records were made by remote sensors, and not at meteorological stations, like the official record at Vostok Station. These extreme temperatures make Antarctica one of the most hostile environments on the planet, being inhabited only by scientists and researchers who study the impact of climate change and the extreme conditions of the frozen continent.

The hottest place on Earth ever recorded is the Lut Desert, located in Iran. This arid and inhospitable desert caught the attention of scientists when measurements taken by NASA satellites recorded an impressive 80.8°C on the surface. This record was identified in 2005 and reaffirmed in subsequent measurements, making the Lut Desert one of the most extreme environments on the planet.
Unlike the air temperatures officially recorded at meteorological stations, such as the 56.7°C at Furnace Creek in Death Valley (USA), the temperature measured in the Lut Desert refers to the extreme heat of the ground, which absorbs and radiates solar energy intensely. The lack of vegetation and the composition of the dark soil contribute to this heat retention, turning the region into a veritable natural oven.
The Lut Desert is so hostile that there is practically no life in much of its area. With strong winds and extremely low humidity, it represents one of the most extreme environments for any living being. This region continues to be studied by scientists to better understand the impacts of climate change and how extreme heat affects different ecosystems.

The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest ocean on Earth, covering about 30% of the planet's surface. Its vastness is so impressive that if all the continents were placed inside it, there would still be space left over. With an area of ​​approximately 165 million km², it is larger than the entire surface of the Moon!
In addition to its colossal size, the Pacific is home to the Mariana Trench, the deepest point in the oceans, at about 11,034 meters deep. To give you an idea, if Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world, were placed inside this trench, there would still be more than 2,000 meters of water above its peak.
The Pacific Ocean is also responsible for influencing the global climate, as its ocean currents affect weather patterns around the world. Phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña originate in this ocean and impact rainfall, droughts and temperatures on several continents.
Despite its beauty and importance, the Pacific also faces environmental challenges, such as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, a huge concentration of plastic waste that threatens marine life. Even so, it remains one of nature's greatest mysteries, with countless species and secrets still unknown.

Did you know that the world map we learned about in school does not represent the real size of the continents? The explanation lies in the Mercator Projection, a model created in the 16th century by the cartographer Gerardus Mercator to facilitate maritime navigation. However, this projection distorts the size of countries, enlarging the regions near the poles and reducing areas near the equator. This makes Greenland appear almost the size of Africa, when in reality Africa is 14 times larger. Similarly, Europe appears larger than South America, even though South America is almost twice as large.
This distortion affects not only geography, but also the political and cultural perception of countries around the world. Other projections, such as the Gall-Peters, attempt to correct these errors, but no projection can perfectly represent the Earth, which is spherical, on a flat map. The issue of which map is “wrong” continues to be a debate between cartographers and geographers!

In some parts of the world, winter brings a surprising phenomenon: the Sun simply does not rise for weeks or even months. This phenomenon occurs in the Arctic and Antarctic polar circles, where the tilt of the Earth's axis causes the Sun to remain below the horizon for part of the year. This period of prolonged darkness is called the polar night.
Cities such as Tromso in Norway and Barrow (Utqiaġvik) in Alaska go about two months without seeing sunlight. At the North Pole, darkness lasts for six months, while at the South Pole, the same happens during the Antarctic winter.
Despite the lack of sunlight, these places are not completely dark. The phenomenon of the aurora borealis lights up the sky in shades of green and purple, creating stunning landscapes. For locals, the harsh winter requires adaptation, with artificial lighting and vitamin D supplements to compensate for the absence of the Sun. This phenomenon is part of the Earth's natural cycle and attracts tourists curious to experience the polar darkness.

Brazil's choice of a road transport model instead of a rail one has historical and political roots. During the 20th century, especially during the government of Juscelino Kubitschek (1956-1961), there was a great incentive for industrialization and the expansion of the road network, in line with the growth of the automobile industry. Companies such as Ford and General Motors pushed for investments in roads, while the construction of railways was left aside.
In addition, the decentralization of railways, which began in the 1940s, and the lack of modern investments led to the decline of this system. While countries such as the United States and China developed efficient rail networks for transporting cargo and passengers, Brazil began to depend almost exclusively on highways, which resulted in high logistical costs and problems such as congestion and road wear.
In recent years, there has been an effort to resume investment in railways, but the predominance of roads continues to impact the country's economy and infrastructure.

The Mercator Projection, one of the most widely used maps in the world, is not only a cartographic tool, but also carries a strong geopolitical meaning. Created in the 16th century by cartographer Gerardus Mercator to aid navigation, this projection preserves angles and directions, but distorts the real size of countries and continents. Regions close to the poles, such as Europe and North America, appear much larger than they actually are, while areas close to the equator, such as Africa and South America, are reduced.
This distortion reinforces historical inequalities, giving the impression that countries in the Northern Hemisphere are more important or dominant. For centuries, this view has influenced international politics, economics and even the cultural perception of nations. Alternatives such as the Gall-Peters Projection attempt to correct these inequalities by representing the continents in their real sizes, but they face resistance due to the consolidated use of the Mercator projection. The debate over maps and geopolitical power continues, showing that the way we see the world can influence the way we think about it.

International Asteroid Day is celebrated on June 30th . This day aims to raise awareness about asteroids and highlight the importance of researching and monitoring these celestial bodies. Asteroids are rocky pieces that orbit the Sun, and knowledge about them is crucial to better understand the solar system and to develop planetary defense strategies against possible asteroid impacts on Earth. This day also aims to promote international cooperation in the observation and study of asteroids, aiming to protect our planet from potential cosmic threats.

The natural landscape corresponds to the natural elements of the space, that is, which have not been modified by human action or which are not directly related to it. We can consider as examples of natural landscape the space of a forest, the area of a desert or even the area of a volcano. Everything that is not related to the naturalness of the environment ceases to characterize the natural landscape.

The humanized landscape is the result of human interference in nature. In it, nature can be absent or modified. These modifications may be the result of actions ranging from the construction of buildings to the destruction of habitats. humanized landscapes can also be called urban or cultural landscapes.

Planet Earth is made up of six major continents: America, Africa, Europe, Asia, Oceania and Antarctica. These extensive portions of land are bathed by seas and oceans, including the continental shelf that extends into oceanic waters. Africa is located in the East, with part of its countries in the Southern Hemisphere, being the third largest continent in the world. On the other hand, America is the second largest continent and is all in the western region of the Earth. Asia, located in the Eastern Hemisphere and with most of its territory in the north, is the largest continent, both in terms of land area and population. Europe has 50 countries and is the second smallest continent. Oceania is in the Southern Western Hemisphere and is the smallest of all, yet the continent with the smallest population. Finally, Antarctica is a continent without inhabitants, located at the South Pole.

The Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth, formed practically together with it and with the emergence of the Universe. It received the name Luna, from Latin, as it was the only known moon at the time. Only in 1610, when Galileo Galilei discovered other moons in the solar system, was the existence of others confirmed. Due to its thin atmosphere, the Moon has numerous craters, the result of continuous impacts with meteors, comets and asteroids. It rotates around its own axis (rotational movement), which means that we always see the same face, and it does not have its own light, but is visible due to the reflected light of the Sun. Depending on the position in relation to the Earth and the Sun, the Moon has different illuminations, called phases of the Moon.

Livestock is one of the oldest activities of humanity, with the aim of producing food and other raw materials. The main products generated by this practice are meat, milk, eggs, honey, leather, bones and wool. There are two basic types of livestock: intensive and extensive. There are two types: beef cattle farming focuses on meat production, while dairy farming focuses on milk production. Agriculture is the term used to designate the junction between animal husbandry and vegetable cultivation.

Mercury is the smallest planet in our Solar System since Pluto was downgraded to a dwarf planet, and it is also the closest to the Sun. This makes the development of life on this planet quite difficult, as there are high and low temperatures, climatic instabilities, a weak atmosphere and a dark surface, probably due to the presence of graphite or high temperatures, which "carbonize" the landscapes. Despite this, he is not the hottest (that title belongs to Venus), but the fastest around the Sun. It is possible that the ancient Romans named him after Mercury, who was the swiftest messenger god. Despite the adversities, it is an intriguing planet that draws the attention of astronomers for containing water, both in solid and liquid state (in smaller quantities).

Venus, the second planet from the Sun, was named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, Aphrodite. It is the brightest object in the night sky, exhibiting an apparent magnitude of -4.6, enough to cast shadows. In terms of size and mass, Venus is very similar to Earth, being only 650 km smaller in diameter and having a mass of 81.5% of Earth's mass. However, conditions on the Venusian surface are completely different, as it is covered by a dense atmosphere composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide and nitrogen being the largest component of the remaining 3.5%.

Acid rain is one of the consequences of air pollution. The carbon dioxide (CO2) existing in the atmosphere already makes rain slightly acidic, even under natural conditions. The natural pH of water is 7 and when in equilibrium with atmospheric CO2 it is 5.6, slightly acidic. Sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3) and nitrogen oxides (N2O, NO and NO2) are the main components of acid rain. These compounds are released into the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels. When they react with water droplets in the atmosphere, they form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). Together, these two acids cause an increase in the acidity of rainwater. This acidification of soil and surface water has devastating effects on ecosystems and poses a serious danger to living beings.

The relief of the earth's surface (lithosphere) is formed by the action of natural processes, such as the movements of tectonic plates, erosion caused by water and wind, as well as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Plateaus, plains, geographic depressions and mountains are some of the types of relief that can be created by these processes. Plateaus are elevated, relatively flat surfaces with steep, well-defined slopes. Plains are flat surfaces, of low altitude, and formed by the deposition of sediments generally originating from higher and eroded areas. On the other hand, geographic depressions are characterized as lower areas in relation to neighboring regions, due to erosion. Finally, mountains are formed by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and erosion caused by water and wind.