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Landscapes and Maps

Scale Problems
When using a map we may have to calculate:
THE REAL DISTANCE, knowing the distance on the map and the scale of the map;
THE DISTANCE IN MPA, knowing the real distance and the scale of the map ;
THE MAP SCALE, knowing the distance on the map and the real distance.

Working with scales:
Large-scale map: it is a map that represents a small area, in great detail.
Small-scale map: it is a map that represents an extensive area, with little detail.
Larger scale: the one that allows you to obtain a map where the size of the representation is closer to reality.
Smaller scale: the one that allows you to obtain a map where the size of the representation is further away from reality.

Fundamental elements of maps: Maps are flat terrestrial representations. Therefore, they are a fundamental tool for the geographer. But in order for them to be used and interpreted, they need to have a set of fundamental elements, which are essential for their reading. The elements are:
Title: indicates the subject to be analyzed, the region, the country or the type of map.
Orientation: is given by the cardinal points on a compass rose or through an arrow with one of the aforementioned points, generally in the north.
Legend: indicates the meaning of symbols, conventional signs or colors of a map. Allows you to read a map and interpret it.
Scale: shows the relationship between the distance represented on the map and the real distance. In other words, the number of times that reality was reduced.
Source: is the name of the entity that created the map, or the name from where it was taken. It must also indicate the date of the data collected.

Classification of maps according to theme:
Thematic Maps: Physical; Politicians; Demographics; Economic and Roads.
General or Base Maps: Planispheres; Chorographic, Topographic and Plans.
Classification of Maps Regarding Scale:
Small Scale:
Planispheres;
Chorographic.
Large Scale:
Topographic;
Plans.

Thematic maps: Present more specific information about a given phenomenon or subject and present information from a more simplified background.
(1)Physical: Represent natural phenomena. Ex. Hypsometric map, climate and forest areas;
(2)Demographic: Represent variables related to the population. (Ex. Resident population distribution map and population density map;
(3)Political: Represent administrative divisions. (Ex.: Country borders and map of administrative divisions);
(4)Economic: Represent economic variables. (Ex.: Gross Domestic Product distribution map);
(5) Roads: Represent road communication routes.

Azimuthal (Flat or Zenithal) Projection: The map is constructed by imagining it situated on a tangent or secant plane to a point on the Earth's surface.
Advantages: Respects the contours and areas of the polar regions;
Disadvantages: Distorts all other regions, especially the equatorial ones.
Also only represents the northern or southern hemisphere.
Note: Uses a plane as a projection surface. In the area where the plane comes into contact with the earth's surface (point of tangency), no deformations occur. As we move away from this point (azimuth), the deformation of the represented surface increases. This type of projection is also called flat projection or polar projection, in the latter case, when the point of tangency is a pole.

Conic Projection: The map is constructed by imagining it drawn on a cone that surrounds the Earth's sphere, which is then rolled out.
Advantages: Respects the contours and areas of the polar regions;
Disadvantages: Distorts all other regions , especially the equatorial and polar ones. It only represents one hemisphere at a time.
Ptolemy was the first cartologist to use this projection in the creation of maps.
A sheet of paper is placed in a cone on the globe and the earth's surface covered is projected. The deformation is smaller in the areas where the sheet touches the globe.
Note: Uses a cone as a projection surface. In polar equatorial regions, greater deformation is observed in this type of projection, since these areas are further away from the contact line (line of tangency) between the cone and the Earth's surface.

Peters Cylindrical Projection: is an equivalent cylindrical cartographic projection, that is, it maintains the proportion of the represented areas, but changes their shapes.
Advantages: Correctly represents the area of the region.
Disadvantages: Distorts the shape of the continents.

Mercator's Cylindrical Projection: In 1569, Mercator published a world map in which he used this type of projection for the first time.
Place the sheet of paper around the globe. The covered surface is projected onto the sheet that is unrolled. Polar regions appear disproportionately large. This projection is the most used today and is known as UTM (Universal Transversal Mercator).
Advantages: It correctly represents the shapes and contours of the Earth's surface; Disadvantages: Modifies areas.

Cylindrical Projection: The map is constructed by imagining it drawn on a cylinder tangent or secant to the Earth's surface, which is then rolled out.
Advantages: Represents the Equator line quite accurately.
Disadvantages: Deforms land areas as we approach the poles.
Note: Employs a cylinder as a projection surface. Close to the equator, where the curved surface of the cylinder comes into contact with the earth's surface (line of tangency), there are no distortions in the representation. As we move away from the equator, the deformation of the represented surface increases.

It is not possible to transform a spherical surface into a flat surface without deformation. Therefore, several methods have emerged to plan the earth's surface. These methods are known as projections. Each of them has some advantages, but also some drawbacks.
The construction of maps, therefore, requires the representation of the Earth's spherical shape on a flat surface, using the technique known as projection. This technique has several types, each with its own particularities.

General or Base Maps: Present general information about the Earth's surface, such as altitude, rivers, towns, infrastructures and forests; They are essential for building thematic maps.
Types of general maps:
Planisphere: Flat representation of the globe.
Chorographic: Representation of a country or region;
Topographic: Representation of the relief;
Plants: Drawing or line that represents a city.

Orthophotomap: It stands out for presenting information with high clarity and detail. This type of map is used as a reference in several studies, including planning and land use. Orthophotomaps are cartographic representations of the Earth's surface created from vertical aerial photographs, in which optical distortions have been corrected.

Aerial Photography: It constitutes a privileged method for remote observation of the terrain, standing out as one of the most economically viable sources for cartographic updating, the production of orthophotomaps and the creation of three-dimensional models of the territory. However, due to the notable degree of distortion present in aerial photographs, it is essential to correct them before using them. These images are captured from aircraft and provide detailed views of the Earth's surface.

Geographic Information System (GIS): This system digitally represents the territory, overlaying georeferenced information in layers, which makes it possible to create different combinations and interpretations of the reality present in the territory. They are computer systems that enable users to search, visualize, collect, process and transform data related to elements of the Earth's surface, resulting in the construction of maps.
Advantages:
Allows you to work with a large amount of information;#NL # Real-time response to support decision making;
Speed in updating information.

Satellite Images: Abundant in information, these images are valuable for cartographic updates and scientific research. Captured from high altitudes by artificial satellites, they are transmitted to stations on Earth, constituting visual records obtained using this equipment.
Advantages: These images offer accurate and faithful representations of the Earth.
Disadvantages: No However, the associated costs are substantial, and the quality of images can be impacted by atmospheric conditions, making them dependent on these external factors.

Technological advances have enabled the emergence of new ways of representing the Earth's surface, widely adopted by geographers and other researchers. Furthermore, they facilitated the development of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), which enable the creation of maps in a more agile and precise way, simultaneously integrating different sources of georeferenced information, such as statistics, aerial photographs, orthophoto maps and satellite images.#NL # During field expeditions, geographers often use cartographic sketches to represent in a simplified way the elements that make it possible to understand the characteristics of a given area. However, in various everyday situations, it is common to resort to mental representations of space, known as mental maps.

Various types of maps allow the representation of a wide variety of natural and human phenomena, with different levels of detail and construction perspectives. Some examples include:Plan: A detailed map that represents small areas of the Earth's surface, such as a city or a residence, highlighting specific features in great detail.Itinerary Map: A map that outlines the route to be taken to reach a specific location, providing guidance on the route to follow.Topographic Map: A map that presents in great detail the configuration of the land (topography), including information such as altitude, water lines, human settlements and roads in a given region.Planisphere: A map that covers the entirety of the Earth's surface, providing a global and general view of the world, without specific details of more restricted areas.

Maps: Reduced and flat representation of the Earth's surface or part of it. Advantages: Easy to store; Easy to transport and use; They can represent the entire earth's surface or just a part; You can expand only a small part that is of interest for a study. Disadvantages: Flat representation of the Earth's surface, which causes many distortions.

Globe: A globe is a sphere on which the map of the Earth is drawn, with the spherical shape being a more accurate approximation of terrestrial reality. Advantages include faithful representations of the Earth, with few distortions in the position and extent of continents and oceans. However, there are disadvantages, such as difficulty in transport, lack of detail in specific areas, complexity of handling, constant global representation, difficulty in storage and limitation in viewing the Earth as a whole due to the reduced size of the surface. terrestrial.

Throughout history, human beings have sought to understand and explore the space around them, representing it on globes and maps. These two forms of representation of the Earth's surface play crucial roles in Geography, allowing location, the establishment of relationships between phenomena and the identification of patterns.
Although both are means of representing the Earth, globes and maps have distinct characteristics, each with its advantages and disadvantages.

The continuous expansion of human presence has threatened the existence of natural landscapes, making them increasingly scarce. Many of these landscapes are located in inaccessible regions, characterized by adverse conditions that make human survival difficult.
In order to recognize, preserve and safeguard natural and cultural landscapes of exceptional importance to humanity, UNESCO adopted, in 1972, the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.
Not only do these landscapes play a fundamental role in the construction of human knowledge and history, they also face the imminent danger of extinction. Since then, significant efforts have been made globally towards the conservation and protection of these designated World Heritage areas, notable examples include Yellowstone National Park, Machu Picchu Sanctuary, Salonga National Park, among others.

Natural landscapes, although not directly modified by humans, are subject to changes caused by natural factors, such as erosion from rivers, oceans and wind, tectonic movements and extreme natural phenomena.
On the other hand, humanized landscapes reveal the impacts of human activity, including deforestation, agricultural practices, urban expansion, industrial development, transportation infrastructure, and population growth. To ensure conscious and planned transformations, considering the natural characteristics of the territory, it is crucial to study and understand the landscape. However, it is important to note that humanized landscapes can also be affected by the action of natural factors.

Through observation and description, we can identify two types of landscapes: natural and humanized. The degree of humanization of the latter varies, depending on the greater or lesser human intervention. Rural landscapes, for example, exhibit a lower degree of intervention, while urban landscapes show a greater degree of intervention. It is important to note that all landscapes are constantly changing, whether due to natural factors or human influence.

Landscapes, whether natural or humanized, are distinguished by their multifunctionality. In a rural landscape, for example, several functions are associated, such as the production of goods, conservation of resources, leisure, preservation of heritage and cultural identity, and the residential function. These functions are performed by several landscape units, which stand out from adjacent areas due to the way natural and human elements interact, and may be separate or overlapping.

Graphic Scale: represents, through a straight line segment, the relationship between representation and reality.
It is represented by a straight line segment, divided into equal parts. Each of these divisions corresponds between actual distances and distances on the map. This scale allows quick reading of real distance values.
Advantages: We can enlarge or reduce the size of the map always maintaining the correct scale.

Landscape arises from the interaction between different elements, whether natural or human, in a specific location, forming a unique composition. It represents an observable portion of the Earth's surface.
The elements that make up the landscape define its structure, enabling detailed analysis. Each landscape is unique and results from the influence of natural elements, such as relief, bodies of water, vegetation, and climatic characteristics (snow, rain, cloudiness, etc.), as well as interaction with human elements, such as buildings, infrastructures, roads communications (roads, motorways, railways, canals, airports, etc.), electricity poles, industries, agricultural holdings and tourist developments.

The vast diversity of landscapes on Earth, combined with human influence, has considerably expanded the scope of study of Geography. To simplify, Geography was divided into two main branches:
Physical Geography: This branch focuses on the analysis of physical or natural phenomena on the Earth's surface, such as climate, relief and hydrography.
Human Geography: This branch explores topics such as economic activities, organization of space, evolution of cities and demography, focusing on the interaction between society and the environment.

Geography is a science that studies the understanding and location of phenomena around humans, addressing the consequences of human activity in nature. Geographers use various sources of information, such as: maps, statistics, texts, photographs, films, documentaries, interviews and research, and four-step study methods to analyze geographic phenomena and find solutions for better coexistence between humans and nature:#NL # 1st stage: Observation (direct or indirect) - answers the question WHAT? (What am I observing?)
2nd stage: Location (exact location of the phenomenon) - answers the question WHERE? (Where is the landscape located?)
3rd stage: Description (All information about the observed elements is presented, accurately and clearly) answers the question HOW?
4th stage: Interpretation (Explanation of the phenomenon that occurred) answers the question WHY?

Geography is a very old science, and was born in Greece, at first it was limited to describing the Earth's surface known at the time.
Geography = Geo (Earth) + spelling (description)
Currently, and taking into account the complexity of the aspects that can be observed on the earth's surface, Geography is not limited to describing but also interpreting existing phenomena, as well as the relationships that are established, in order to find solutions to existing problems. In short, Geography is the science dedicated to the study of physical and human phenomena that occur on the Earth's surface and the interrelationships that they establish.