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There are several ways to unravel the mysteries of the past. Historians, who are specialists who study and document the past, use a wide variety of traces left by ancient human societies, such as texts, photographs, paintings, buildings, sculptures, objects, clothing, oral reports, films, music and even fragments. of bones. They examine these sources to investigate information, formulate hypotheses and draw conclusions about events and aspects of the past.
The set of traces left by ancient human societies, together with texts written by historians, encyclopedias and reconstructions of historical environments, is called historical sources. These sources are vital to understanding and interpreting past events.

Valmiki Jayanti is a Hindu celebration dedicated to Valmiki, the author of the epic Ramayana and considered the first poet in Sanskrit literature. Celebrated on the Purnima (full moon) day of the month of Kartik, usually between October and November, the day honors his literary and spiritual contributions. Festivities include recitations of the Ramayana, prayers and worship in temples, as well as kirtans and lectures on Valmiki's teachings. The day also serves as an opportunity to reflect on the epic's values, such as virtue and duty, promoting the importance of literature and culture in the Hindu tradition.

Egyptian civilization flourished in the northeast of the African continent along the banks of the Nile River, between the Arabian and Libyan deserts, from 3500 BC, lasting about 3000 years. Its development was driven by the fertility of the soil, enriched by the annual floods of the Nile. The Egyptians mastered engineering, building dikes and canals for irrigation during the dry season, as well as using the river as the main transportation and communication route for trade. Agriculture was the basis of the economy, cultivating wheat, barley, flax and other crops, while ranching, fishing and hunting. Crafts also prospered, including pottery, goldsmithing and metalworking. Agricultural surpluses boosted trade, with Egypt exporting wheat, pottery, and linen cloth, and importing raw materials such as wood, copper, and precious metals.

The Farroupilha Revolution was an armed conflict that took place in southern Brazil between 1835 and 1845, led by Rio Grande do Sul farmers, the "farrapos", against the Brazilian imperial government. They sought greater regional autonomy, reduced taxes and an end to practices that harmed the local economy. The war was marked by bloody battles and brutality on both sides. The conflict came to an end with the signing of the "Peace of Ponche Verde" in 1845, which granted amnesty to the rebels and brought concessions from the imperial government. Gaúcho Day, or Farroupilha Revolution Day, is celebrated on September 20 , marking the beginning of the revolt in 1835. This date is important in Gaucho culture, being celebrated with parades, festivals and civic events throughout Rio Grande do Sul .

The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 was one of the most significant events of the 20th century, symbolising the end of the Cold War and the reunification of Germany. The wall, built in 1961, divided Berlin into two parts: West Berlin, under capitalist and democratic influence, and East Berlin, under a socialist regime controlled by the Soviet Union. It became a symbol of the ideological divide between the capitalist bloc led by the United States and the communist bloc led by the Soviet Union.
The fall was driven by a number of factors. Pro-democracy protests grew throughout East Germany, while political reforms in the Soviet Union, led by Mikhail Gorbachev, weakened Soviet control over Eastern European countries. In 1989, a wave of peaceful demonstrations and popular pressure resulted in the relaxation of travel restrictions, culminating in the unexpected opening of borders on the evening of 9 November.
The event had global repercussions, marking the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the advance of democracy in the region. German reunification was officially completed on 3 October 1990. The fall of the Wall remains a symbol of freedom, hope and the overcoming of political and ideological barriers.

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century, marked a crucial transition from an agrarian and artisanal economy to an industrialized and urban model, with an initial impact on Europe and later on the United States and other regions. This transformation was driven by significant technological advances, especially the invention of the steam engine by James Watt, which revolutionized production, transportation and the expansion of industries such as textiles, as well as fostering the development of railways and the growth of cities.
Socially, the Industrial Revolution brought about major changes, notably the mass migration to urban areas in search of work in factories. However, this rapid urbanization brought challenges, such as precarious working conditions, exhausting hours and low wages, particularly affecting women and children. The lack of labor rights and unhealthy living conditions for the working class generated criticism and social tensions.
Globally, this period gave rise to industrial capitalism and expanded international trade, concentrating wealth in the hands of a few and deepening social inequalities. Although it spurred technological innovation, the Industrial Revolution also brought social and environmental challenges that shaped discussions and reforms in subsequent decades.

Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512) was an Italian navigator and explorer whose voyages to the New World helped redefine the geographical understanding of the time. Unlike Christopher Columbus, who believed he had reached Asia, Vespucci realized that the lands he had discovered were in fact a continent unknown to Europeans. His expeditions between 1499 and 1502 were crucial to this revelation.
In his letters, Vespucci described the new lands and peoples in great detail, convincing the cartographer Martin Waldseemüller to name the continent "America" ​​in his honor on the 1507 map. This designation became popular, cementing Vespucci in history.
Despite some controversy over the authenticity of his accounts, his influence on the understanding of the New World was undeniable. Vespucci also played an important role in the Spanish House of Contracting, helping to organize expeditions.
His legacy lives on, and he is recognized as one of the great names of the Age of Discovery.

Amidst one of Scotland's darkest histories, the Black Dinner took place in 1440, during the reign of James II. The monarch, concerned about the conspiracy that had claimed the life of his predecessor, James I, invited 16-year-old William Douglas and his younger brother to a feast. Midway through dinner, a large black bull's head was placed on the table, signaling the Douglases' death warrant. Even against the king's wishes, both were beheaded, and this tragedy came to be known as the Black Dinner.

Classical antiquity (also called the classical era, classical period, or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 8th century BC. and V d.C. centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the intertwined civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period when Greek and Roman society flourished and exerted great influence across Europe, North Africa and western Asia. During this period, Greek-Roman mythology was born. The Greeks and Romans built several temples to their gods, places where they performed prayers and rituals, including animal sacrifices. The Greek gods were similar to the Roman gods. But some Roman gods have significant differences from the Greek gods. In Greek religion, names are in Greek. In Roman religion, names are in Latin.

Ancient Egypt is known for its pyramids, pharaohs, wealth and, most importantly, mummification. When a nobleman or pharaoh died, his body was taken to the "Ibu", a place of purification, on the west bank of the Nile River. Priests were responsible for initiating the embalming process, washing the corpse with palm wine and river water. After that, the organs were removed, with the exception of the heart, which normally remained in place. The brain was removed through the nostrils. Many organs were kept in special containers, while the rest were thrown into the river. This funerary practice is still studied until today, because in addition to a procedure, it serves to better understand the culture of the Egyptian civilization.

Many ancient Indian warriors did not wear helmets to protect themselves during battle, which led to serious damage to the face, such as trauma to the ears and noses. To treat these injuries, Hindu doctors developed surgical techniques that do not differ much from modern ones. A common procedure was rhinoplasty, in which a piece of skin was cut from the patient's forehead and folded over to cover the nasal opening. Hollow tubes were also inserted to form the nostrils. Since the 5th century BC, there are records of such successful surgeries. Another extremely different but equally effective method was to use Bengali ants to sew up intestinal or abdominal wounds. The mandibles of these insects served as surgical staples, and were then removed when the patient's immune system was strong enough to absorb them.

Many believe that, at the moment of his death, Julius Caesar uttered the famous words: "Et tu, Brute?". However, the truth is that the controversial Roman dictator never said such a thing. The phrase was invented by William Shakespeare for his fictional character Caesar to say it. In fact, that wasn't Caesar's last line (it was "So fall, Caesar"). However, what did the historic Caesar say? Being someone from the upper class and with a formal education, it is likely that he communicated in Greek rather than Latin. His last breaths were, according to an ancient writer, "Kai su teknon", a phrase difficult to translate which, in the most accepted version, means "Even you, my son?". While it is possible that the words were directed at Brutus, as some rumors said he was Caesar's bastard son, others believe the phrase to be a threat to all those who conspired against him. In this case, the translation would be "You will be next, children".

Execution by crucifixion is an extreme punishment that originated in Persia around 500 BC and spread to many regions, including Rome. Some passages in the biblical Old Testament also suggest that the Jews of the time already applied punishment. Alexander the Great spread the act's popularity by storming the city of Tire and crucifying 2,000 of its adult male inhabitants in the 4th century BC. The Carthaginians were the most widely employed of crucifixion, and it is certainly from them that the Romans adopted the practice. However, the Romans did not usually crucify their own citizens, reserving the most extreme punishment for their worst criminals, such as Spartacus and his fellow rebels. In response to the uprising led by Spartacus, the Romans staged one of the largest mass crucifixions in history, killing approximately 6,000 rebellious slaves on crosses along the road from Rome to Capua in the year 71 BC.

During the reign of Henry II of England (1154-1189), creativity was used to punish those found guilty. For example, an alleged horse thief was thrown into a tank of blessed water and, according to belief, if he floated, it would prove his guilt and consequently he would be executed. Otherwise, innocence would be proven.

Treatments for diseases like the Black Death, which wiped out much of Europe's population in the 14th century, were wildly crazy and ineffective. Some of the recommendations were: sitting in the sewer to chase away the "bad air", which was responsible for this disease; consuming arsenic, which resulted in death; kill every dog and cat that could be found; rubbing the shaved hindquarters of a chicken into the wounds; and walk through cities whipping their backs.

More than two thousand years, the death of Alexander the Great remains unanswered. The most accepted version is that he fell ill after a night of drinking and died a few days later. According to Katherine Hall, a researcher at the University of Otago, the death of the Macedonian king may have been caused by Guillain Barré Syndrome. She explains that this condition causes muscle weakness, changes in the level of consciousness and, in some cases, weakening of the lungs. Thus, due to the limitations of medicine at the time, it is possible that Alexander was declared dead while he was still alive. The author believes he could have overheard the generals discussing the succession. Furthermore, he could have heard the arrival of the Egyptian embalmers and the completion of their work. Therefore, despite there being nothing supernatural in the story, the king's body showed no signs of decomposition even after seven days of his death, which contributed to the idea that he was divine.

Cleopatra's family had its origin in Macedonia. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Ptolemy I, one of his generals, took control of the government, founding the dynasty of the Ptolemies, which lasted for nearly three centuries. Despite not being ethnically Egyptian, Cleopatra adopted many of Egypt's customs, as well as learning the country's language. In 46 BC, she joined Julius Caesar and went to Rome, where she caused quite a stir with her presence. The queen considered herself a goddess on earth and erected a golden statue of herself in the temple of Venus Genetrix. When Julius Caesar was stabbed to death in the Senate in 44 BC, Cleopatra left the city, but her exotic hairstyle and pearl jewelry became fashionable among the Romans.

The Stone Age is marked by the manufacture of stone tools, which differentiates human beings from other animals. This production began with the practice of hitting stones together to create sharp points. Around 700,000 years ago, Homo erectus learned to carve stones. This advance was only possible with the mastery of fire, which served to ward off animals, light up the camps at night and, mainly, for cooking. Cooked food was another decisive factor in increasing the human population and for the survival of human beings. The Stone Age can be divided into two parts: the Paleolithic, or Chipped Stone Age, and the Neolithic, or Polished Stone Age. The latter was marked by the beginning of a sedentary lifestyle, known as the Neolithic Revolution, which lasted approximately 10,000 years and brought agriculture and the domestication of animals.

Giza Necropolis, also called the Pyramids of Giza, is an archaeological site located on the Giza Plateau, outside Cairo, Egypt. This complex of ancient monuments includes the three pyramid complexes known as the Great Pyramids, the massive sculpture known as the Great Sphinx, several cemeteries, a working village and an industrial complex. The word pyramid does not come from the Egyptian language. It was formed from the Greek "pyra" (which means fire, light, symbol) and "midos" (which means measures).